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1.	softeners		Mitigate the force of an impolite or demanding request. "Could you?"
2.	free morphemes		Are words and can occur alone. car yes
3.	cognates		Words derived from the same mother word. flora/fleur
4.	meter		Basic rhythmic pattern of a poem.
5.	language games		"secret languages", Ubbi Dubbi. Children tend to grasp quickly, phonologically based (not spelling).
6.	dactyl		long-short-short
7.	complex nominal		Sequence of 1+ nouns/adjectives. Can be ambiguous. olive oil, ivy league school
8.	register vs. genre		- Genre refers more to "socially conventionalized kinds of text" - Register: a subset of language that is used by a speaker for a specific purpose; spoken style (e.g. formal versus informal) depending on the speaker's attitude, not the communicative type
9.	sex versus gender		Sex: physiology, genetic. Gender: culture, identity.
10.	affricates		Consonant version of dipthong, such as ʧ (tuh-sh = chuh).
11.	homonymy		Words that accidentally pronounced the same. Too/two None/nun
12.	source: external change		Contact between outside linguistic communities.
13.	compositional semantics		Put together meaning of complex phrases by merging together classes red/cow/all/eat/grass. * Assumes lexical semantics = already known.
14.	number of languages		~ 7000 Number increases due to different categorization.
15.	phonemes		Little sounds/building blocks of sound (e.g. alphabet) that helps us put together sounds to form words.
16.	formant frequencies		Related to phonetics; major resonances frequencies of sound, such as in vowels.
17.	syntactic category rule		Most word slips occur when things replace those of the SAME CATEGORY. e.g. noun by a noun, verb by a verb.
18.	indirect speech acts		Doesn't directly address issue, but "answers" as a correct response. Would you like to meet me for coffee? I have class. (Rejection)
19.	recursive compositionality		Create big ideas out of smaller ones (compositionality). Multiple groupings form hierarchy of meaning (recursion). Developed by Frege and Russell.
20.	hiss		A leaky escape of air. Causes fricatives.
21.	sense vs. reference		Coined by Frege: SENSE What it actually means. REFERENCE Real life object it refers to. John, Mary's husband Morning star, evening star.
22.	diglossia		When formal language and spoken language become so apart they split into two different languages. You can prescribe the formal as much/long as you want, but you can't stop people from speaking their own.
23.	iamb		short-long
24.	Spandrel Theory		Theory that language resulted from an accidental convenient twist.
25.	pop (stop)		Pressure of air behind a constriction, with a sudden release. Cause plosives.
26.	gerunds		To Fly -> The Flying of...
27.	anapest		short-short-long
28.	content morphemes		Nouns, adjectives, or verbs. Can freely be created. "Open Class"
29.	metathesis		spaghetti - pasghetti
30.	uniqueness point		Point at which there is no mistakening a word for another. b- bri- brid-> bride. General occurs about halfway through word.
31.	shibboleth		Linguistic marker to distinguish between two groups. Ex: Dominican Republic and the rolling R, or Biblical Gilead versus Ephraimites.
32.	synonymy		Same meaning. pavement = sidewalk
33.	equivalence classes		Also known as lexical sets. Vowels sounding the same.
34.	incompatibility		Mutual exclusiveness. Sort of like antonyms? Red/green -> both with in a big category, but aren't the same.
35.	eggcorn		When not fully knowing something, passing it on. Down the chute -> down the shoot.
36.	Theory of Mind		Recognize that others have beliefs, thoughts and they can be changed. Attention getting, pointing, looking in direction where others are looking.
37.	social differentiation		Higher class picks way to distinguish themselves (g-dropping). Vocabulary, pronunciation, ways of phrasing things...
38.	gating paradigm		Way to cut off word and allow subjects to guess the word.
39.	quantitative metrical system		Based on long-short syllables, NOT accented and non-accented syllables. In Greek and Latin metrics.
40.	Machiavelli Intelligence Theory		Intelligence (deception, lying, etc.) drove our brains to become a lot bigger than expected.
41.	tune-lyric alignment		Innately put stress of words with down beat of the music.
42.	Cupertino effect		Mistake made by computers when spell checking. Not an attempt to undermine English, but a mistake.
43.	encephalization		Brain size normalized would be proportional to social-ness of group. Groups of ~150 too large, so possible speaking to adapt to gossip.
44.	Relevenance Theory		Based on Grice's Cooperation: communication based on intentions.
45.	inflectional morphemes		Change something grammatically: present/past, singular/plural. - predictable meaning - ONLY suffixes (in English) - remain same part of speech - occur outside derivational changes
46.	metonymy		Using a term to convey its associations. Metaphor - The ship plowed through the sea. Metonymy - The sails crossed the ocean. "The law" for policeman. (Example is also synecdoche because sails are a part of a ship.)
47.	Great Vowel Shift		Vowel sounds rotated in a big circle. e.g. he (pronounced not with "e" but with "i" sound - hee not heh). Chart. Middle English to Modern English.
48.	lexical semantics		Refers to the meaning of lexeme by itself. Compare to compositional semantics.
49.	paradigmatic		How words can substitute for one another in a sentence (meaningwise). Items on a menu have paradigmatic relationship when they are in the same group (starters, main course, sweet) as a choice is made. Individual letters have a paradigmatic relationship with other letters, as where one letter is used, another may replace it
50.	other sound changes (6)		assimilation dissimilation haplology loss merger split
51.	word vs. morpheme		One or more morphemes that can stand alone. Words can generally be moved about in a sentence, but morphemes cannot. (SWIM TEAM *team swim, RECALIBRATE *CalibrateRe)
52.	prothesis		introduction of new sounds at the beginning. (scola, escola in Portugeuse)
53.	purposive		Similar to communication-intentionalists. Consider the intents of the law maker when creating the law.
54.	metaphor		Extend meaning by comparison or analogy.
55.	glottochronology		Rate of change in language similar to radioactive decay. Vocabulary decays ~ 14% each millennium. If related languages 70% similar, then protolanguage existed 12 centuries before... Higher percentage of cognates, then more recently the two split. Flaws: assume that decays at constant rate; word lists not comprehensive. Change arises from EVENTS, not regular.
56.	difference theory		Also called "two culture theory." Men and women inhabit different cultural worlds. Grow up in different cultures, and can't communicate cross culture. Women use language as a "bonding" experience to build relationships. Rapport. Men rely on activities to bond, use language to express facts. Report.
57.	lexicostatistics		By Swadesh. Get lists of words, find cognate pairs, and match percentage to determine how related two languages are. Flaws? - Borrowing from other languages. - Low cognate percentages might be from chance, or brief interaction, and not descendance.
58.	rhetorical structure		Meaning's version of syntax. Kind of like a big outline of the ideas being expressed: main idea, followed by facts, etc. Relates entire phrases, sentences, etc; concepts like justification. Synax would only relate words; concepts like quantification. (a and dog)
59.	unconditioned sound change		Occurs across the board. Hawaiian: changed all "t" to "k" (but there are still "t"s in related Islandic languages like Tahitian)
60.	trochee		long-short
61.	dipthong		Vowels sounds formed by two: ɛɪ, aʊ. NOT ar.
62.	multi/poly-morpheme words		Made up of more than one morpheme. men = debatable (if you include the null morpheme)
63.	malapropisms		Using big words in the wrong context. From Mrs. Malaprop in Sheridan's play "the Rivals" (think mal a propos).
64.	apocope		Loss of ending sounds. (Usually conditional)
65.	statutory construction		A process of determining what a law means.
66.	lateralization		Localize language and speech into one side (left, dominant) of the brain.
67.	facilitative tags		Invite the listener to take a part in the conversation. "They are ugly, aren't they?" Women say more than men (and powerful even more). Carry on the "work" of keeping convo going?
68.	spondee		long-long
69.	perfomative verbs		Assert, ask, order, advise, warn, promise, bet. They actually accomplish the verb when said. Use "hereby" test to check.
70.	language learning		Learning as children, pick up differently.
71.	lenity		If law is ambiguous (e.g. two appellate courts disagreed in the car title washing scheme), the defendant would get his side.
72.	language contact		e.g. bilingual, learn less well, cause shifts. Borrow words and sound constructions from other languages.
73.	clitic		"Little words" like 's, a, the. Don't have much meaning on their own, needs to have a "host" word. Neither derivational or inflectional.
74.	sonority		How resonant a sound is. Vowels are more sonorous, and are therefore in the middle of syllables. Plosives are least sonorous, and are beginning/end of syllables. Fricatives are middle of sonorous scale.
75.	source: internal change		comes from within a single linguistic community.
76.	accentual-syllabic metric system		Based on stress patterns and beat structure.
77.	parapraxis		"Freudian slips" a form of self-betrayal of unconscious beliefs. Can occur at many levels of linguistics - syllables, phonemes, etc. Uncommon - very rarely related to repressed fears or desires. Will come up more likely if the situation is prompted - "primed" by assocation.
78.	synecdoche		A type of metonymy. Also expresses associations, but specifically references a part of the whole thing, or a larger class of the whole thing. (Broader or narrower term.)
79.	conditioned sound change		Sound changes only in specific situations, such as before certain consonants.
80.	textualist		Similar to formal semanticists - look into exactly what the words say and nothing more.
81.	syllable		A cycle of opening/closing the vocal tract. ONSET (the start of syllable) NUCLEUS (inside of syllable)
82.	modal tag question		Request information or confirmation of uncertainties. "You ate it, didn't you?" Men use more than women. (Mean they are more insecure about opinions?)
83.	accentual-syllabic		Each line has a given number of beats, but there are also some restrictions on the # of syllables in between each beat.
84.	semiotics		Study of signs & signaling, developed by Pierce and Saussure.
85.	lexeme		Walk, walks, walked. A lexicon is the vocabulary of all lexemes.
86.	syntagmatic		How lexemes relate to the syntax (whole sentence). The letters in a word have syntagmic relationship with one another, as do the words in a sentence or the objects in a picture.
87.	derivational morpheme		Creates a derivative word. - Can sometimes change part of speech. To create -> the Creation - Unpredictable meaning/selective attachment. - Can be suffix or prefix. - Close to stem.
88.	natural usage		Easier to drop middle sounds (probably to probly) - some constructions stick and stay.
89.	comparative method		Difficult, requires advanced knowledge of grammar of each language. Try to reconstruct mother language through examining patterns that happen across the board to cognates.
90.	garden path sentences		Used in psycholinguistics to show we process words one at a time.
91.	Nonconcatenated Morphemes		Instead of prefix/suffix, infixes. Aren't added together. - un-friggin-believable - men = man + null morpheme (change is in the middle, not on the end)
92.	direct speech acts		declaration questioning imperative ^ Are generally defined well, unlike threats which can vary.
93.	base		In a multimorphetic word, the base is not always "free" -> unkempt
94.	constituent		Group of words that function as a unit. - Substitution. - Movement (to another part of sentence). - Question - replace w/ question word.
95.	epenthesis		Add sounds to the middle. (athlete, realtor)
96.	antonymy		Opposite meaning. high != low
97.	affective tag question		Indicate concern for the addressee. Has nothing to do with uncertainty. "Open the door for me, could you?"
98.	typological features (3)		1. phoneme inventory 2. syllable structure 3. prosody (acoustic properties like rhythm and intonation) Can create a hierarchy of most common to least common.
99.	allomorph		A variant form of another morpheme. [z] and [s] in cats and dogs.
100.	vernacular Latin		"vulgar Latin" - was spoken on outskirts, and became Ibero-Romance, including Spanish and Portuguese.
101.	scansion		Marking up the rhythmic structure of a verse, with notation for the beat, additional syllables, and line breaks.
102.	bound morphemes		Cannot occur alone. re- -tion
103.	tag questions		Added to the end to confirm; signifies lack of self-confidence in speaker. Men actually use more tag questions in some studies.
104.	scope		Prominence of one quantifying over another. Two girls hugged very boy. (Two has scope over every.)
105.	limerick		two lines of anapestic trimeter, followed by two lines of anapestic dimeter, followed by final anapestic trimeter.
106.	non-contextual word substitution		The substituting word comes completely out of the blue (not in original phrase). Hungarian restaurant instead of rhapsody.
107.	dominance theory		Men and women grow up in the same culture, but power and status not equally distributed. Language different present due to variation of goals and status.
108.	syncope		Loss of middle sounds. (Usually conditional). (Jessica, Tamara)
109.	laryngal buzz		Causes voiced/voiceless sounds. Oscillation of vocal cords in the larynx.
110.	function morphemes		Prepositions, serve a grammatical purpose. to, by, a, the Not easy to create, so "closed class"
111.	Hyponymy		Inclusion of meaning. Scarlet, crimson are hyponyms of red. Cat is a hyponym of animal.
112.	connotation versus denotation		Connotation: emotions, suggestive meaning of a word. Denotation: points to a real life something, literal meaning. Sometimes they become the same (trivial) over time. NOT THE SAME AS SENSE AND REFERENCE.
113.	word salad		Jumble of words. Takes longest to recognize, because relying solely on acoustic evidence and word frequency.
114.	polysemy		A word that has multiple meanings. Bright = not dark, or smart.
115.	spoonerisms		From Dr. Spooner: Work is the curse of the drinking classes. Tasted the whole worm. Queer old dean. Letters or syllables get swapped.
116.	contrepet		French linguistic joke: phrases that would be obscene if exchange were to happen.